Tackling three urgent questions in the African foundational learning knowledge and data ecosystem

The  69th annual Comparative and International Education Society (CIES) conference, held in March 2025,  provided a vibrant space for critical education, data and policy discussions. The Unlocking Data Initiative (UDI), funded by the Global Partnership for Education Knowledge and Innovation Exchange (GPE KIX) , a joint endeavour with Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC), hosted a panel that sparked deep reflections on foundational learning (FL) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a focus on Cameroon, Kenya and Malawi. Participants noted that it stood out because of its engaging discourse on FL data, policy and advocacy. 

Following four insightful presentations from the Unlocking Data panel at the CIES conference, the audience raised three key questions that were both pertinent and central to the core challenges relating to FL in Africa. They highlight gaps in consensus, policy priorities and strategic engagement — critical issues that demand attention if we are to achieve meaningful change. This blog post draws on the CIES discussions to look at these pressing issues in more detail to advance the conversation and engage an even broader audience.

The lack of a universally accepted definition of FL is a recurring topic of debate, especially in Africa and, more generally, the Global South. Unlike children in the Global North, where FL is often tied to native-language literacy, many African children must learn a foreign, often colonial, language before they can access education effectively. This situation gives rise to the following critical questions: 

• What does FL refer to or mean in the different contexts of Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa, for example?
• Should FL benchmarks be adapted to accommodate the multilingual realities in which children are learning in unfamiliar languages?
• How can we accurately measure FL when assessment tools are not always contextually adapted for different environments?

Without a harmonized understanding of what FL means in the African context, data collection and policy formulation efforts will likely remain fragmented. Such fragmentation will result in policies that do not meet the actual needs of the continent’s population — for example, resources and interventions could be allocated inefficiently or inappropriately, diminishing their overall effectiveness. When definitions and strategies differ significantly, certain groups — for example, those in rural versus urban areas or certain demographics — might receive insufficient or inappropriate education opportunities. In addition, a lack of consensus complicates FL advocacy and action as a priority at the continental level. This situation underscores the urgent need for a pan-African dialogue to establish a contextualized FL framework before we move on to focusing on refining metrics.

The Global South, and Sub-Saharan Africa in particular, finds itself in a paradoxical situation: High enrolment rates sit alongside alarmingly low learning rates — more children are attending school, but many complete primary education without acquiring basic literacy or numeracy skills. As highlighted in the World Bank Group’s State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update report, education systems in the region are struggling to address this deepening crisis. However, although many countries have adopted general policies that promote access, equity and quality, the current situation needs FL-specific policies for several reasons.

• Learning poverty requires urgent and targeted interventions 

Decades of education interventions across Africa have successfully prioritized access, as demonstrated by the significant increase in primary school enrolment from 52% in 1990 to nearly 80% in 2019. However, the quality of education has not kept pace with the enrolment numbers. According to the State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update report, more than 86% of 10-year-olds in some Sub-Saharan African countries cannot read and understand a simple sentence. To address this crisis, we need to develop specific FL policies so that dedicated resources such as targeted funding, specialized teacher training and appropriate learning materials are both available and accessible.

• Some equity gaps demand focused strategies

Generalized education policies often fail to adequately address the needs of highly vulnerable groups. This is particularly problematic in SSA, where equity challenges to the acquisition of FL are some of the most significant in the world and require specific attention. For example:

• Wealth differentials in the acquisition of FL: According to a 2022 report by UNICEF, poverty remains one of the most significant barriers to the acquisition of foundational skills. It notes that children from the lowest wealth quintile are 16 percentage points less likely to have foundational reading skills compared to those in the wealthiest quintile. Similar patterns were also observed in numeracy skills and other background factors such as disability and parental educational attainment.
• Out-of-school children: According to UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report 2024/5, the share of the global out-of-school child population in SSA increased from 32% in 2000 to 51% in 2023, with girls being particularly affected. Children who are out of school are significantly less likely to acquire FL, deepening the learning crisis. Furthermore, re-entry programs, although well-meaning, often lack clear strategies to help learners catch up and acquire FL. The situation is worsened by curriculum transitions in many African countries, where returning learners may be exposed to two different curricula without adequate support, increasing learning gaps. Existing evidence on inequalities in the acquisition of FL underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions that ensure not just access but also meaningful learning for all children, especially those who belong to vulnerable populations or re-enter school.
• Refugee and displaced learners: UNICEF’s 2024 data snapshot on migrant and displaced children shows that over one in four international immigrants in Africa, that is, 6.2 million, are children. According to UNICEF 2019, those children are out of formal education and exposed to various obstacles such as language differences, unfamiliar social practices, prejudice, complex legal procedures, absence of identification documents, or lack of acknowledgement of prior educational achievements, which often hinder their access to formal education. In numerous nations, the lack of protective measures and policies that restrict the exchange of information between immigration officials and service providers can stop these undocumented children from getting an education due to fears of being discovered, detained, or deported. This situation indicates a need for targeted interventions and programming.
• Children with special needs: As noted in UNICEF’s 2022 In Pursuit of Education for All report, in Africa, children with disabilities are significantly more likely to be out of school at all levels and less likely to have foundational reading skills and to complete primary education compared to their peers who have no disabilities. Moreover, in the context of SSA, data on learning levels for children with special needs is scarce. The little that exists relates to children with special needs who are enrolled in formal school environments. Thus, planning and supporting FL programs for this group of children demands not only advocacy but also robust data that would allow for equity-based budgeting and programming. 

• The focus should be on competency rather than curricula

Many African education systems continue to emphasize curriculum coverage over actual learning, which may explain why FL outcomes remain low. Specific FL policies are an essential precursor to institutionalizing competency-based approaches and ensuring that children master the basics before they move on in school.

In Busy Going Nowhere: Curriculum Reform in Eastern and Southern Africa, a 2018 UNICEF Education Think Piece, Roger Cunningham argues for a shift from traditional content-heavy curricula to competency-focused models that prioritize learning outcomes over rote content delivery.

The third critical question centres on the challenge of advocacy and engaging decision-makers. Even when the importance of FL is supported by strong evidence, reforms often stall. This is due to several factors, including the following:

• Misaligned incentives: When it comes to measuring success, education systems generally focus on low-level and short-term visible outputs, such as increased enrolment numbers and  new infrastructure, rather than the more complex and long-term outcomes of improved learning.
• Limited political will: Policymakers may favour quick, visible projects that align with political cycles or funder priorities over foundational reforms that require sustained commitment.
• Fragmented advocacy efforts: Researchers, NGOs and practitioners operate in silos, and sometimes even work at cross-purposes, which dilutes their collective influence.

Tackling these intertwined questions requires a multi-pronged, strategic approach:

• Coalition building: Aligning the opinions and ideas of diverse stakeholders, including civil society organizations, teacher unions and the media, is crucial if we are to make FL a national priority and create a unified voice. A united position amplifies the urgency for governments and policymakers to prioritize FL within national frameworks. It aligns communication, thereby eliminating inconsistencies, which enhances the credibility and effectiveness of FL initiatives. It also prevents overlapping or contradictory efforts, ensuring that time and resources are used efficiently. A coordinated strategy facilitates the delivery of clear and engaging FL education to all demographic groups minimizes duplication of efforts within a region.
• Evidence-based messaging: Translating complex research findings into accessible, compelling policy briefs that resonate directly with leaders and policymakers is a vital step toward achieving informed decision-making.
• Leveraging global platforms: Using international frameworks such as Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) and the GPE 2025 strategic plan can help hold governments accountable to their commitments to improving FL.

The Unlocking Data Initiative remains committed to engaging ministries of education, researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders to tackle these critical issues collectively. By working together to demystify evidence, align policies with learning needs and amplify coordinated advocacy efforts, we will move closer to achieving the ultimate goal: an Africa where every child achieves FL.